A Global Survey of Politics and Crises
From Post–Cold War Optimism to Polycrisis
When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, many observers believed the world was entering a new era. The United States emerged as the sole superpower, the global economy became more interconnected, and liberal democracy appeared to be spreading. Francis Fukuyama famously called this “the end of history,” suggesting liberal democracy was the final form of human government (Fukuyama, 1992).
Three decades later, that optimism has given way to what scholars call a “polycrisis” – multiple crises unfolding at once, each reinforcing the other (Tooze, 2022). The rise of authoritarianism, U.S. political polarization, Russia’s war in Ukraine, renewed conflict in Israel and Palestine, the growing power of China, Europe’s economic malaise, and democratic challenges in Latin America and Africa all illustrate the instability of the current moment.
To understand how we arrived here, it helps to trace the story in a roughly chronological and causal way, noting how the legacies of history shaped today’s global politics.
The United States: Polarization, Populism, and the Trump Era
The U.S. emerged from the Cold War as the world’s sole superpower. The 1990s were marked by optimism about globalization and technological progress, but also by widening inequality. The 9/11 terrorist attacks in 2001 shifted American foreign policy toward the “War on Terror,” with interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq. Those wars consumed trillions of dollars and diminished U.S. credibility abroad (Costs of War Project, Brown University).
Domestically, partisan polarization deepened. The 2008 global financial crisis eroded trust in institutions, setting the stage for populist movements. Donald Trump’s 2016 election reflected this environment: his campaign capitalized on anti-elite sentiment, economic discontent, and skepticism toward globalization.
Trump’s presidency (2017–2021) challenged U.S. political norms, including relations with NATO, trade policy with China, and the role of truth in public discourse. Even after leaving office, Trump’s influence persists, with ongoing legal cases and his continued centrality in Republican politics (Brookings, 2023).
The United States today faces questions about democratic resilience, its ability to manage great power competition with China, and whether it can maintain alliances that have underpinned global order since World War II.
Europe: Integration, Crisis, and Brexit
The European Union (EU) was originally envisioned as a project of peace after WWII, gradually expanding in the 1980s and 1990s to include much of Central and Eastern Europe. The creation of the euro in 1999 symbolized deepening integration.
Yet crises soon tested the project. The 2008 financial crash led to a Eurozone debt crisis, especially in Greece, Spain, and Italy. Harsh austerity policies fostered disillusionment with the EU (IMF, 2012).
Brexit, culminating in the UK’s exit from the EU in 2020, reflected both economic grievances and concerns about sovereignty. It marked the first major reversal of European integration (BBC, 2020).
Today, the EU struggles with sluggish growth, energy dependence, and security concerns amplified by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. While the bloc remains a major economic power, its internal divisions and demographic challenges raise questions about long-term dynamism.
Russia and Ukraine: From Post-Soviet Collapse to Full-Scale War
Russia’s trajectory since the Soviet collapse has been central to today’s geopolitics. In the 1990s, economic “shock therapy” reforms led to massive inequality, corruption, and political instability (Stiglitz, 2002). These conditions enabled Vladimir Putin’s rise to power in 2000.
NATO’s eastward expansion, while framed as voluntary accession by new democracies, was seen in Moscow as encirclement (Mearsheimer, 2014). The 2008 war in Georgia and Russia’s 2014 annexation of Crimea signaled Putin’s willingness to use force to reassert influence.
In February 2022, Russia launched a full-scale invasion of Ukraine, seeking to topple its government. Instead, the war galvanized NATO, leading Finland and Sweden to apply for membership. The conflict has killed hundreds of thousands, reshaped global energy markets, and driven new geopolitical alignments (UNHCR, 2024).
The war illustrates both Russia’s assertiveness and its limits: military underperformance has weakened Moscow, even as it tightens ties with China, Iran, and parts of Africa.
The Middle East: Israel, Palestine, and Regional Shifts
The roots of the Israel-Palestine conflict stretch back to the late Ottoman era, British Mandate policies, and the wars of 1948 and 1967. The Oslo Accords of the 1990s raised hopes for a two-state solution, but violence, settlement expansion, and political stalemates derailed progress (UN, 2017).
In recent years, Gaza has seen repeated wars between Israel and Hamas, while Israeli politics has shifted rightward under Benjamin Netanyahu. The Abraham Accords (2020) normalized Israel’s relations with several Arab states, but did not resolve the Palestinian question.
The October 2023 outbreak of war in Gaza marked one of the bloodiest chapters of the conflict in decades, drawing renewed global attention (Human Rights Watch, 2023).
More broadly, the Middle East remains shaped by the legacies of the Arab Spring, civil wars in Syria and Yemen, and regional rivalries between Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Turkey.
China: From Deng’s Reforms to Xi’s Centralization
China’s transformation since the late 20th century is one of history’s most dramatic. Deng Xiaoping’s reforms in the 1980s and 1990s introduced market elements while retaining Communist Party control. Entry into the World Trade Organization in 2001 accelerated growth, making China the world’s second-largest economy.
Since 2012, Xi Jinping has consolidated power, abolishing presidential term limits, tightening censorship, and emphasizing nationalism. The Belt and Road Initiative, launched in 2013, expanded China’s global influence through infrastructure investment (Belt and Road Portal).
At the same time, tensions with the U.S. have grown, from trade disputes under Trump to technological and military competition under Biden. Taiwan remains a flashpoint, with Beijing vowing eventual unification.
China’s rise has reshaped the global balance of power, challenging the U.S.-led liberal order that dominated after 1945.
Mexico and Latin America: Cycles of Populism and Economic Dependency
Mexico’s modern trajectory reflects both integration with the U.S. economy and domestic political shifts. The 1994 NAFTA agreement tied Mexico closely to U.S. and Canadian markets. More recently, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) has pursued populist policies, balancing nationalist rhetoric with pragmatic cooperation on trade and migration (Wilson Center, 2023).
In South America, Brazil illustrates broader regional dynamics. Lula da Silva’s presidency in the 2000s symbolized a leftist “pink tide,” boosted by commodity exports. Economic downturns and corruption scandals paved the way for Jair Bolsonaro, a right-wing populist. Lula’s return in 2023 highlights the oscillation between left and right populism (BBC, 2023).
Across Latin America, cycles of populism, commodity dependence, and inequality remain defining features. Venezuela’s economic collapse under Nicolás Maduro, Chile’s constitutional debates, and Colombia’s peace process with FARC each show the region’s volatility.
Africa: Coups, Competition, and Climate Pressures
Africa’s political trajectory since the Cold War has been uneven. Democratization expanded in the 1990s, but recent years have seen a wave of military coups in Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Gabon (CFR, 2023).
External powers play growing roles. China is Africa’s largest trading partner, investing heavily in infrastructure. Russia, through both state and Wagner Group channels, has built influence in the Sahel and Central Africa (Carnegie Endowment, 2023).
Meanwhile, climate change exacerbates challenges. Droughts in the Horn of Africa, floods in West Africa, and food insecurity have displaced millions (UNEP, 2022). Debt burdens and demographic pressures add complexity.
Africa’s trajectory will shape the future of global politics: by 2050, one in four people in the world will live on the continent (UN DESA, 2022).
The Global South and New Alignments
Many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America are asserting themselves as a “Global South” bloc. The BRICS group (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) expanded in 2024 to include new members such as Saudi Arabia and Iran (Al Jazeera, 2023).
These alignments reflect frustration with Western dominance and a desire for multipolarity. They also complicate global governance on issues like climate, debt, and technology.
Conclusion: From Unipolarity to Polycrisis
The world of the early 21st century no longer resembles the unipolar optimism of the 1990s. Instead, it is shaped by overlapping crises: U.S. polarization, authoritarian resurgence, geopolitical conflicts, economic stagnation, and climate pressures.
Each regional story, from Brexit to Brazil and Gaza to the Sahel, is part of a larger narrative: the breakdown of a post–Cold War order and the emergence of an uncertain multipolar world.
History shows that moments of upheaval often give rise to new systems of governance. Whether today’s crises lead to greater cooperation or deeper fragmentation remains to be seen.